Vladimir Koprivica
Faculty
of sport and Physical Education, Belgrade ,
Serbia
Twentieth century, among other things, has been
marked by a great development of sports. This in particular applies to the second
half of the XX century, when practically all sports disciplines have sped up
their development by improving the training methodology, expanding forms and
scope of competition, construction of new sports facilities, much better
organization of championships and trainings etc. All of said has been
accompanied by increasingly voluminous expert and popular information, rising
popularity if sports and financial investment in sports. Hence, from leisure
activity, sport has become a professional activity for many individuals. For
those who invest the money in sports, it is an opportunity for profitable
business venture which generates financial as well as other gain.
Such momentum in sports has not been possible
without educated professional personnel and influence of the science, which
according to measure of progress in sports has been gaining an increased
importance. By discovering certain patterns in sports, the science has enriched
the practice, but the athletic practice, prompted, in biggest part by need and
will to reach the maximum, has always been one step ahead.
The accumulated practical results and
experience have asked for professional and scientific explanations. However,
only after the World War Two, especially in the period from 1960 to 1970, first
works had been published which explained in entirety the segment of training
and competition. By leaning on his predecessors, in the first place L. Pikoli
and N.V. Oyolin, the most reputable international authority in this field, L.P.
Matveyev(1964) had formed new theoretical postulates which he expounded in
detail in his subsequent books(Matveyev, L.P. 1977, 1999, 2001, 2008). These
works had a profound impact on practically all theoretical works of this type
in the world(e.g. Ulatovski,T. 1971, Harre,D. 1974, Bompa, T. 1983, Platonov,
V.N. 1987, 1997, Choutka, M. Dovalil, J. 1991, Zeljaskov, C. 1998) and in Yugoslavia
Macro cycle, as a generally accepted term, has
been in the beginning identified with one of the season(year) in sports, since
the single cycle variant of training was dominant which comprised preparatory,
competition and transition period. A substantive increase in the number of
competitons and improvement of financial basis of sports made possible the
championships throughout the whole year(even in typical seasonal sports
disciplines), which, in turn, effected the change in the traditional structure
of the season. Instead of a season with one championship period, now more
frequent are cycles with two, three and even more competition periods. If each
of these cycles has retained all three periods which make its constituent
parts, even much reduced, that has meant that during the seasons more macro
cycles could have been realized.
The breakup of classical competition-training
season where the competition period lasted long-time(6-7 months) into two
shorter macro cycles, fully complied with the patterns of getting, keeping and
losing sports fitness. Older researches(Matveyev, L.P. 1977) but also newer
research( Matveyev L.P. 1991, 2001) as well as sports practice have shown that
provided the strict criteria are adopted in regard to sports fitness an athlete can remain in good shape/with good
sports fitness up to 2,5 months. With good planning and realization of training
process, that period coincides with competition period. The next macro cycle
commences with the new training period which favors creation of conditions for
getting back athletic fitness and its duration in the course of second
competition period. Because of the said, many athletic disciplines have moved
from monocyclic to two-cyclic variant of the season.
Due to ever increasing domination of the
seasons with two and three macro cycles, a monocyclic variant of the seasons
has been neglected and considered as obsolete. However, very soon, it has come
out that ”…the structure of the annual
training-competition cycles of top athletes is not built from 3-4-5-6 macro
cycles as deemed by some experts” (Suslov, F.P. Sepelj, S.P. 1999). The more complex structure of macro cycles and
training-competition season, besides transitional factors which determine
it(development patterns, keeping and losing of sports fitness, specific
characteristics of athletic discipline, patterns of athletic development of an
individual and his adaptation abilities, orientation toward important contests,
etc., Koprivica, V. 2002), has been caused by many factors and is of later
date.
In the current development of sports, for one
sports season consisting of one or more macro cycles, the following features
are important:
- All seasons differ among themselves, and in particular the season
in which athletes prepare for the main competition, not only during that
seasons, but also preparations lasting for several years – for Olympic
Games.
- A season may have more macro cycles, but three at most, since
practical experience shows that in athletic disciplines wherein
three-cycle periodization is used, practically there are no athletes who
prepare at the same time for three main athletic events divided into three
macro cycles(Suslov, F.P.1988). Top tennis players are forced to do that
by the system of valuation of results, but in particular because of this,
in equal international competition, it is almost impossible to win all
four Grand Slam tournaments in one year.
- Sports calendar which is under ever increasing pressure of sports
commercialization is expanded up the measure which is no longer rational.
The calendar often extends to 10 months per season so that the former
separate macro cycles of the seasons have been completely joined. So, we
have again obtained a monocycle variant, without interim period necessary
for recuperation and new preparation. Since competitions in many athletic
disciplines extend during major part of the season, it would be more
correct that the competition period be named period of basic competition.
- The ratio of duration of competition and preparation period is
being more and more disrupted. A theoretical recommendation is that the
preparatory period must last from 1/3 to ½ of the season’s duration, is
being less and less honoured in practice. In Chart 2 we can see that ratio
is 1:4,5 and not in relation to the whole season, but only to competition
period.
- The optimal ratio of training and competition practically does not
exist any longer if it is participated at all or at most of the
competitions throughout one season. There is an important defference here
between individual and team sports. The advantage of individual sports is
that for an athlete and individual competition calendar may be made which
suits his needs and abilities. Hence many top athletes, especially in the
year immediately prior to Olympic Games, pay all attention to main
competition of the season. Some of the most successful athletes choose
mono cycle variant of the season in which they increase the duration of
the preparation period and reduce the number of competitions to needed
minimum period. Even in these circumstances, the athletes in some sports
disciplines cannot evade a large number of competitions during the
season.(J. Jankovic 83, R. Nadal, R. Federer, N. Djokovic each 80 games in
the year 2008)
- Preparation period is used for gradual long-time getting into
shape/obtaining athletic fitness. In order that a greater improvement of
results and stability of sports fitness may be guaranteed, it is necessary
that in macro cycle sufficient time be set aside for preparation period
which provides unforced getting of athletic fitness( Matveyev, L.P. 2001).
Because of that in professional sports literature preparation period is
most often called a period of fundamental preparation.
- The ever decreasing preparation period imposes a need that the
preparation period be extended to the first part of competition period and
that less important competitions be used as a powerful factor of
preparation for acquiring sports fitness during main competition events(
Koprivica, V. 2002).
- The increase in the number of competitions, among them commercial
competitions as well, did not bring about an increase in the number of
appearances of most of the top athletes in individual sports in the course
of the year. However, in sports disciplines the number of competitions and
matches is increasing continually which the top teams cannot evade. For
example, in basketball, from former periodization with two or three macro
cycles( Furaeva, N.V. 2001), now there is an enormous number of matches
which account for over 30% of active days of the training-competition
cycle(see Chart 2) and season with one competition cycle which lasts for
long time(Elevic, S.N.). Because of the said, the teams that want to win
the title, gather a large number of top players who can jointly bear the
burden of a strenuous season and win. In some athletic games, a number of
matches in the same sports year are within reasonable framework(Chart 3).
- Very often in sports literature is neglected the fact that a
periodization of sports training is a process of managing the athletic
fitness. The competition calendar is put into the first plan again, as the
main factor which determines the structure of the annual cycles. According
to research done by N.V. Furaeva(2001) even the experts are doing this.
This can be a great strategic mistake in practice which moves away the
athletes and teams from success at major competitions.
- The changes which had been noticed brought about a series of
positive effects: a complex management of the training and competition
process has caused the formation of a numerous expert staff made up of
specialists of various profiles; a control of trainings and competitions
is beind improved as well as the system of monitoring competition
activities; possibilities for control of athletes’ health are improved,
doping control is improved as well as methods and forms of its
application; conditions for rehabilitation of injured athletes are being
ameliorated; athletes’ diet is under more strict expert control; better
and faster information are obtained on opponents; modern information
technology makes possible fast data transmission and procession thereof as
well as forming of valuable database; new training machines and better
equipment are used; conditions for fair refereeing at athletic matches are
much better etc.
- In more and more complex situation the following may be noticed as
well in the practice:
·
A
hierarchy of compeititons is being disrupted and advantage is more often given
to commercial, well paid competitions over major sports events of the season,
even over the Olympic Games;
·
There are
no required cycles of recovery in long competition periods
·
The
athletes are increasingly exposed to enormous specific strains so that some of
them after extremely strenuous seasons receive serious injuries and are poorly
prepared for the next seasons, where, as a rule, they obtain poorer results.
·
A
transition time period is reduced so that in athletic games the player who in
this period have both preparations and matches for the national team are
overstrained.
·
There is a
growing number of major sports events/competitions in successive order during
the season, and thereby a possibility is diminished for: variation of load,
rational distribution of load, change in direction of load and rest, correct
ratio between general and specific, application of prophylactic training etc. ;
·
The phase
of immediate preparation for the main competition is mostly in the competition
period, so the risk of loss in increased if the various competitions are
intertwined;
·
A map of
sports competitions is expanding, since the competitions are taking place on
all continents and trips and frequent changes of time zones and climate
conditions are an additional load of athletes( e.g. Novak Djokovic travelled
115 thousand kilometers in 2008)
·
Work with
national team selections requires a correction of sports calendar in the year
of major sports events so that the athletes may have rest from competition in
the first part of the year; and then prepare themselves well for the main
competition of the season;
·
Due to
increased number of sports obligations( competitions, trainings, travels), a
possibility for top athletes to get educated and qualified for life after the
athletic career is finished and diminished.
An acute problem of creating macro cycles of
top athletes and their place, number and structure in the season is not
followed by presentation of concrete material from practice. Example given in
Chart 2 for the squad participated in four competitions in the same season may
serve as an indicator of current competition and training load in top sports.
In this example, through figures and ratio or various parameters of the season,
one can see numerous issues of macro cycles and competition seasons in top
sports.
Chart
1. Structure of monocycle and
two-cyclic variant of annual cycle(without transition period) of the world’s
top athletes(according to Suslov, F.P.,Sepelj, S.P. 1999. revised)
Macro
cycles WEEKS(average
number, min-max)
|
|||||
Preparation
period
|
Competition
Period
|
Total
|
Appearances
No(Average)
|
||
Two-
cycle
variant(N=12)
|
First MCC
|
16,4(12-20)
|
4,2(2-8)
|
20,6
(18-23)
|
5,4(3-10)
|
Second MCC
|
9(5-13)
|
18,5(8-23)
|
27,5
(21-31)
|
21,4(7-36)
|
|
Total
|
25,4
|
22,7
|
48,1
|
26,8(13-43)
|
|
Mono-cyclic
variant (N=7)
|
MCC
|
29(24-34)
|
18,6(13-23)
|
47,6
(46-49)
|
19,7(13-33)
|
Chart
2. Basic information on
preparation and competition period “Partizan” Basketball Club in the 2007/08.
Season
INDICATORS
|
Numeral
indicators
|
%
|
Duration
of the preparation and
competition
period
|
318
days
|
100
|
Preparation period
|
58 days(18%)
|
|
Competition period
|
260 days(82%)
|
|
Ratio of duration of preparation
And competition period
|
1:4,5
|
|
(trainings
and matches)
|
280(100%)
|
88
|
Competition days
|
88(31,4%)
|
|
Training days
|
192(68,6%)
|
|
Ratio of training and competition days
|
2,2:1
|
|
2.
Days of rest
|
38
|
12
|
Ratio of active days and
days of rest
|
7,4:1
|
|
Total
trainings
(matches
and trainings)
|
447
|
100
|
Matches
|
88(100%)
|
19,7
|
Official
|
76(86%)
|
|
Preparatory
|
12(14%)
|
|
Trainings
|
359(100%)
|
80,3
|
During preparation period
|
81(23%)
|
|
During compeitition period
|
278(77%)
|
|
Ratio of trainings in preparation
and competition period
|
1:3,4
|
|
Ratio of trainings in preparation
and competition period
|
4,1:1
|
|
Average exercises per day
|
1,6
|
|
Ratio of number of days of the competition
period and number of official matches
|
3,4:1
|
|
Chart 3. Overview of matches played(official) of the Red Star volleyball players
in the 2007/2008. season
COMPETITION
|
CHAMPIONSHIP
|
HOME CUP
|
INTERNATIONAL CUP
|
NO OF MATCHES
|
14- Regular part of the seasons
6- Mini league
8 – Play off
|
1- 1/8 Finals
2- ¼ Finals
2- Final tournament
|
6 – CEV cup
|
TOTAL NO OF MATCHES PER
COMPETITION
|
28
|
5
|
6
|
TOTAL
MATCHES
|
39
|
||
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